Race and Culture in American Films :: Media Latin Americans Movies Film Essays

Race and Culture in American Films "One of the side effects of American cinema was often crushingly brutal portrayals of other races and cultures, depictions that spread to larger audiences than eve before possible around the nation and even around the globe."(Keller,5) The visual images depicted through the video montage "Gringo in Mananaland" support many of Keller's views on the harsh portrayals of Latin@s through American media. The video succeeds in emphasizing the particular roles that Latin Americans played in the early years of film. Latin@s were seen as entertainers that would "appear in a context that makes them either foils to or sex objects of Anglos."(Keller,39) This idea is particularly evident through the specific gender roles that Latin@s played throughout the video. Keller describes the three most common roles for Hispanic females in American film. The role that seemed to most often be filled by the Latinas was that of a cantina girl. Basically a dancing, singing sex object, the cantina girl is a "naughty lady of easy virtue, who is also outgoing and exhibitionistic."(Keller,40) As Keller states, "outside the parameters of romance or sex, there are virtually no roles for Hispanic females. The Latina was portrayed as a pursuer of the Anglo man, always waiting for him to enter her life, and always willing to "discard her Latin suitor in favor of the Anglo."(Keller,40) In general, the Latinas in the video montage were portrayed as sexual temptresses with little respect for themselves or their values. Hispanic males were most often portrayed either serving to the Anglo males or lusting after the Anglo women. The various roles that Hispanic men played in American films were usually limited to negative characters such as bandits or greasers. The depiction of Latin@s in early American cinema is far from accurate and rarely displays realistic living situations of Hispanics. It is evident from both the video and from Keller's descriptions in Hispanics and United States Film that the Latin@s were portrayed as ignorant, uneducated, unproductive people in American films. They were primarily entertainers, and were never placed in real life situations in the Latin American community. Keller's belief that "white Americans believed in the superiority of the white race and depicted this superiority on the silver screen"(32) was clearly evident in the video montage.

Civil Disobedience in Famous Literature Essay -- Plato Socrates Philos

Civil Disobedience in Famous Literature A society or a people cannot let a government lead them blindly. With misrepresentation comes a whole new form of unjustness. The strong are the ones who do not give into demands placed upon them if they do not agree; those who refuse to conform to society; those who stick to their beliefs, no matter the cost. In many cases, those people are the ones who practice civil disobedience. Martin Luther King, Henry Thoreau, Socrates†¦ All advocated that they should not be denied their freedom, and all were considered disobedient. The government rules itself not by appealing to man’s â€Å"sense, intellectual or moral, but only through his body, his senses. It is not armed with superior wit or honesty, but with superior physical strength.† (Thoreau) At a certain point, government does nothing but put fear upon its subjects, so that they would rather obey the law than risk the consequence of not. Such an example in seen in Sophocle’s renowned play, Antigone. In the story, Ismene portrays the role of a submissive sister, who’s obedience to law blinds he...

Gene Therapy Essay -- Biology Medical Biomedical Genetics

Gene Therapy: The New Vaccine ABSTRACT This research paper details what gene therapy is and what it is (and potentially will be) used for. It also describes the gene therapy techniques and delivery methods that have been clinically tested and/or verified by scientists and the ideas that stimulate activity in the field in the race to perfect gene therapy methods and their application, as well as telling about the beginnings of its clinical testing and where this budding technology is headed. Finally, it discusses one last question: Is gene therapy the vaccination of the future? RESEARCH Gene therapy is a biotechnological technique that has recently made significant leaps of progress in the world of scientific research. The theories behind its use have created many new goals and ideas in scientists’ minds, and there is much opportunity for discovery in the field. There are two types of genetic technology that are currently being researched for application in clinical testing and for the cure of certain genetic diseases in humans: somatic cell gene therapy, and germ-line therapy. Somatic cell gene therapy is a development that could potentially eliminate a hereditary disease’s effects in a patient through the injection of genetic material that would fill in for a nonfunctional gene, alter an abnormal one in the patient’s chromosomes, or exchange the defective gene for a new, fully-functioning one (www.ornl.org). Germ-line therapy would be used similarly in embryos’ germ cells, but would have the additional effect of the faulty gene’s permanent eradication so that it could not be passed on to future descendants. There are also multiple types of somatic cell gene therapy. In vivo gene therapy, the most common in clinical testin... ...entists will make many revolutionary discoveries. With this new technology being researched, there’s no telling when the technology will be perfected. Who knows? Someday soon, gene therapy could even be something as commonplace as vaccination. Bibliography: 6 Friedmann, The Development of Human Gene Therapy http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/medicine/genetherapy.shtml http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/AB/BA/Gene_Therapy_Overview.html http://asgt.org/news_releases/basics.html http://www.fda.gov/fdac/features/2000/500_gene.html http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Therapy/gene (G.T. for Cancer) http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/short/346/16/1185 (Ex Vivo for X-SCID) http://asgt.org/news_releases/06022005a.html http://genome.gov/13014325 Reilly, Abraham Lincoln’s DNA and Other Adventures in Genetics Turksen, Adult Stem Cells 7

Barrio Boy Essay

1. Author Information The author of Barrio Boy, is Ernesto Galarza. Ernesto was born in Jalcocotan, Nayarit (which is in Mexico) on August 15, 1905 and died in 1984. During Galarza’s early childhood, he lived in a small village of Jalcocotan, all while he learned respect for the things he had. Ernesto came to the United States at a young age, during the Mexian Revolution which happened in the early 1900’s. While Ernesto was growing up, he helped out his family in harvesting their crops. He worked in the harvest crops of Sacramento, California. Working in these conditions inspired his views on the way Mexicans were treated as farmworkers. He soon became concerned about the way that the Mexican agriculture workers were treated poorly, and lived in bad condtions all while being a school boy. During these hard times, a baby died, from drinking the polluted water they were given. When the Mexican people found out about this, they decided to ask Ernesto to lead the village in a protest, because Ernesto had been taught English in school. Galarza showed his student activism towards Mexian-American in the early 1929’s, which was when he vocalized his views on the way that the Mexian-American’s were being treated. He finished up high school, and after graduation he continued on with his education. He went to Stanford University, where he was the first Mexican-American to ever be admitted. Mr. Galarza earned his Ph. D. in history and political science at Columbia University. After World War II, Dr. Ernesto Galarza soon became a labor organizer because of his endorsement of the AFL-CIO, he was also named the National Farm Labor Union’s executive secretary. Galarza was deeply committed to the education of young people, and the thought that everyone should have an opportunity to  get a good education. Which might be the reason that he started to write literature for children. Ernesto Galarza was the author of numerous books which included topics on social and economic values, expecially toward the Mexican-American society. Galarza’s wife was Mae, who developed a bilingual education program, which is now a model for other programs. Along with all of Galarza’s accomplishments, he translatted the ‘Mother Goose’ stories into Spanish, and with that book, he also wrote Barrio Boy, which originated from stories that he told his daughters. And in 1976, Ernesto Galarza became the very first Mexican American to be nominated for the Nobel Prize for Literature. II. Setting The begining of the book took place in a quaint village in Mexico, called Jalcocotan or Jalco for short. Jalco was around the mountains of the Sierra Madre de Nayarit. The nearest city from Jalco was Tepic, from Tepic it was near impossible to get to Jalco. You would have to go down mule tracks, on either a mule or on a burro, and the whole time just hold on the best that you could. The indians that founded Jalco wanted it to be difficult to get into this village, which is why they choose the small rocky places and the gullies surrounding Jalco. They thought of Jalco as ‘some natural storm cellar’, so that they wouldn’t be hit with the hard hurricanes that sometimes occured. Jalco is where Ernesto Galarza grew up, and he considered himself and anyone growing up in the puebl ‘jalcocotecanos’. In the book he talked about how great Jalco was because it gave protection from outsiders, and it only had one street. This street was an open stretch of a mule track, but it had been widened through out the years, to be able to ‘park six automobiles hub to hub’. In Jalco, there was a line of houses, or cottages on each side. Roofs, were made only of thatched palm, and there was no windows, while the backs of the houses were called corrales, because ‘they were narrow alleys that led uphill to the edge of the forest on the upper side of the village’. Ernesto had to move to Tepic. They thought that bolas were forming, which the book gave deffinition to as: ‘any group of persons who got together to overthrow the establishment or to inglicht upon it anguish or alarm; when armed and operating in the mountains, they were more accurately called â€Å"guerillas.† ‘. and they thought that they would soon be coming to Jalco the revolution was going to move to Jalco. Gustavo had been chosen to go to Tepic, and see what was going on over there. The night that he left, there was a major comet that Don Cleofas said foretold that something very impacting was soon to happen, but specially he said this comet meant that La Revolucion was coming our way. Gustavo came back to Jalco a few days after the comet. What he saw there was guards, and men being taken to regiments, which made Ernesto’s family decided to move into Tepic where they would all get jobs and find a place to live. The revolution scared Ernesto’s family, and everytime they thought that the revoultion was gettin close, they packed up their stuff, with a lot of thought involved, and moved to the next city. The book says that the ‘city was peaceful while we lived there but in the vecindad there was the talk and the feeling of trouble. My mother lived in dread that Jose would be picked up and taken away as a draftee to fight for Don Porfirio’. After they found out that no one could enter or leave Tepic without being stopped bu the patrols, and how regiments were getting quartered around the village in Tepic, they decided to go to Acaponeta. In Acaponeta Ernesto said that the most important place was the railway station, which he stood far away from the tracks and watched the people get on and off of the train, and watch the train go off into the distance. The train stain was also the center of the revolution, because there were soliders in the boxcars, and Ernesto and his mother could see how the revolution was evolving. A letter came in from Gustavo that said for Ernesto and his mom to go to Urias, from Acaponeta. Gustavo said that he would send a money order to them both to help transport them from Acaponeta to Urias. Gustavo’s letter also said that Esther would also go to Urias to meet up with them, because they were also sending him money. A few days later they left on a train from Acaponeta, to go to Urais, where they meet up with Gustavo and Jose. They stayed in Urais for a while, but when Dona Florencia found a room for rent, they were off to Mazatlan. Mazatlan was the next city over to Urais, so it really wasn’t too big of a move for Ernesto, and in the book it said, ‘The down payment on teh rent was made and Jose went back to Casa Redonda for out things.’. The place that they lived in was only one room, and had a red tile roof, and brick floors. Then three more letters came from Gustavo, where he wanted to get all the family together, only this time in America. Gustavo and Jose wanted to have all the family together in Sacramento, California because that’s where Jose had to work on the railroad. Ernesto and his mom had to wait in Tucson, before they could continue their journey, so they could get another pass and so money could be obtained. While they were in Tucson Ernesto had a great time with the hotel and the toilet, it says in the book, ‘That night I got up many times to go to the toilet, until i was ordered to go to bed.’. When they got back on the train for the last time, they finally entered their destination of Sacramento. The book describes them entering Sacramento as, ‘A brake man opened the door at the front of the coach and called, â€Å"Sach-men-ah,† by which we knew he meant Sa-cra-men-to, for we had passed a large sign with the name in black and white at teh entrance to the corporation yard. From there, the book setting is in Sacramento, and describes the different things that Ernesto Galarza learns while in school, and while he’s out on the farm. III. Characters The main character of the book was Ernesto Galarza (big surprise). In this book, Ernesto Galarza is not very physically developed in the beginning, but towards the end of the book he was on his way to manhood. Emotionally, Ernesto Galarza is strung everywhere, depending on the time of the book. â€Å"Police and firemen swarmed around for a while. We never called the police, they just came.† is one excerpt from the book where he had to be  very emotionally strong, because he had to realize the bad neighborhood that he was in, and how his family was taking it. They were doing the best that they could possibly do, and he knew how bad that made them fell. Another time that Ernesto showed how emotionally impact he was, was when he had to move out of his home town of Jalco, and into different places with his family. Moving is hard on anyone, expecially if you have lived there you’re whole life, the hardship of having to move from city to city in Mexico was really bad for Ernesto Galarza, because this family had to ask other family members if they could stay in their houses, and they had to start from scratch. Which really shows how emotionally strong he was. Ernesto Galarza had to be mentally strong, to see how bad things really could be. To see your neighbor that’s a child dying, you have to get mentally stronger than the average person. Ernesto Galarza also had to take a place in watching the rituals for those who are really sick, and then had to participate because his family thought that that the more people involved in the ritual, the better the outcome. Ernesto Galarza was also shaped into a better mentally strong person through this story because he experienced many rascist situation in reverse. In the book, Ernesto Galarza wanted to send a letter to his mother, but he had to make it a telegram because it had to be in english. At the bottom of the telegram, Ernesto Galarza signed it ‘Little Ernie’ but the clerk made him change it to ‘Ernesto’. This made Ernesto Galarza think about everything, and develop himself better and become more strong mentally. Other than Ernesto, there were a few other main characters which include Gustavo, and his mother. Gustavo wrote his family letters, and money. Gustavo was very physically developed because he had to work very hard labor, such as the railroad tracks. While his mom wasn’t too physically developed because she was a woman, but she always did what she could to help out. Emotionally Gustavo was very strong, and expressed a lot of concern. Gustave  never really expresses a lot of his feelings because he’s pretty quiet. Ernesto’s mom was always wanting to do the best thing for her kids, no matter what. She was willing to take all of her things and move them just for the sake of her children. Gustavo mentally wanted to get all of his family in one spot, because family was very important to him. Through-out the who book Ernesto keeps getting these letters from Gustavo and Jose explaining what he had to do to find, or reunite with his family, and Gustavo and Jose took care of their family by giving them money to help them out on their journey. Galarza’s mom was very mentally strong to be able to go from place to place, with all the worries that she had on her mind, like the time she stayed up all night before they left. IV. Plot Barrio Boy, had a lot of Man Vs. Self, and Man Vs. Society. Man Vs. Self: There were so many times that there was a man vs. himself, but one time specifically was when Ernesto had to learn English. Ernesto just had to concentrate, and believe in himself that he could learn how to read and write English before he actually could. Ernesto’s mom helped him in his work, by his mom calling out the combinations she had written him on tope of the slate. Man Vs. Society: Like man vs. self, there were a lot of man vs. society too, but one time in particular was when Ernesto ventured out of the alley and down the street, and was chased home by three American boys. This shows how difference societys act towards different people, Ernesto didn’t even understand what the boys were yelling at him, he just understood that it wasn’t very nice. The book was mainly about how Ernesto had to move from Jalco and to city to city, to try and be with his family. The reason that his family was split up was because of the Mexican Revolution. During the book, Ernesto’s family  wanted to be as far away from the revolution that they could be, no matter how many times they had to move. Gustavo and Jose kept sending Ernesto and his mother money to get from to place in this book, because they wanted to get all of their family in one place. They tried a lot of villages and cities in Mexico, until they finally decided to go to the United States. They choose to migrate to Sacramento, California because Jose was working on the railroad there. The rising action in this book was all the traving Ernesto did. On each train, he was exposed to different experiences and different people. The main action of this book was when they finally arrived in Sacramento and was reunited with their family, because that’s what the story was talking about through-out. There, was also where the falling action occured, which would be that when he got there, he had to work and help support his family, and watch his little sisters. The resolution would be that he went to school, and made something of himself. V. Theme The life lesson that was taught in this book would be that don’t take anything forgranted. In Ernesto’s book, he goes through a lot of conflicts with himself and with the circumstances that he has to live in. The biggest conflict was having to move from place to place trying not to get caught up in the Mexican Revolution. Although Ernesto was in a horrible situation, he always seemed to turn it around for the better, and look towards the more positive out look. Everyone has a choice on whether or not they want to be in a good mood or not, they decide whether they want something to bother them or not. In this book, it teaches you how to take a more positive approach to everything you do which also reflects how you shouldn’t take anything forgranted. Ernesto never loses his positive approach, and keeps his head up high, which is what everyone should do. VI. Evaluation This book, along with everyother book has its ups and its downs. Barrio Boy was a very capturing story about immigration and coming to the United States. The book itself gives you the feeling that you’re hearing the stories told time and time again by your grandparents. Ernesto uses a lot of detail in this book which gives you a clear picture of what he’s talking about. As an autobiography, Ernesto Galarza did a good job. If the reader has a sense of history and knowlege of Mexican-American culture, then they’ll read with ease. The Barrio Boy book had very interesting subject matter, however the writing itself sometimes is a bore. Ernesto Galarza dwells on facts very insignificant to the purpose of the story and therefor the reader must wade through all of that to pull out the important history he’s retelling. The first 70 pages was pure talk of Ernesto’s family, and how they lived in Jalco. It included some interesting details on what they did, but it was all pretty irrelevant to the story at hand. This alone turns the reader off, and makes them want to put the book down. Another thing that turns the reader off is that you never learn about the rich history of the Mexican-American Herritage in this country. Ernesto could have also used more English terms in this book. Readers don’t like to have to flip to the back of the book, to understand what they are reading exspecially if it’s already drawn out. If you like to read about culture, especially Mexican-American culture you might find this book to be enjoyable. If you have problems reading books for anything other than pleasure you might want to pick up another book about the Mexican culture in the United States, you might want to try Rain of Gold, by Victor Villasenor.

Gatsby Embodies West Egg Essay

In the novel, â€Å"The Great Gatsby†, Scott Fitzgerald uses various literary devices such as theme, irony, and characterization to embody Gatsby with West Egg characteristics. The Great Gatsby is set in New York and on Long Island, in two areas known as West Egg and East Egg. The narrator, Nick, describes West Egg as the home to the â€Å"new rich,† those who, having made their fortunes recently, have neither the social connections nor the refinement to move among the East Egg set. West Egg is characterized by lavish displays of wealth and garish poor taste. Both locations can be seen generally as: established aristocracy for East Egg and the self-made rich in West Egg. Therefore, there’s definitely a discrepancy between the two places. Gatsby, one of the protagonists of the novel, lives in a huge mansion in West Egg and is an urbane man. He hosts parties every night which are full of fun and action, he seems like a man that exhilarates people to have fun. Gatsby embodies the characteristics of West Egg as he, at least until chapter 5, has made himself rich. In chapter 5 Gatsby clarifies that he did inherit his money from his family who bequeathed it to him, however he â€Å"lost most of it in the big panic- the panic of the war† (Fitzgerald 87). Therefore he got involved in the drug business and oil business to make money again, which he is no longer involved in. This is one way Gatsby embodies West Egg as he made himself rich by working in these 2 businesses. It is clear that Gatsby is wealthy as he owns an enormous house with â€Å"a swim pool, beach, vast garden, fancy parties and marble everywhere† (Fitzgerald 11). This portrays one of the themes in the novel, the clash between â€Å"old money† and â€Å"new money†, that manifests itself in the novel’s symbolic geography: East Egg and West Egg. Gatsby would be considered the â€Å"new money†, while people such as Tom, which come from a wealthy family, is the â€Å"old money†. This is a pivotal theme throughout the novel as it affects various aspects of characters and setting. This also relates to how the discrepancy between West Egg and East Egg affects the characterization of certain characters. Gatsby is characterized as a man that is wealthy and loves to share his â€Å"happiness† with others by hosting numerous parties which are full of expensive drinks such as â€Å"Chartreuse† (Fitzgerald 88) held in his luxurious mansion. Irony is also present in the first chapters of the novel, as before Nick Carraway met Gatsby, no one truly knew who he was or where he came from. There where a few rumors, such as him killing someone or being the son of a German king, however no one knew the truth and people wanted to ascertain more about Gatsby. Many scrutinized his background as many wondered where he came from, and who he truly was. Throughout the novel the reader know learns more about Gatsby. One might expect Gatsby, the organizer of the huge parties, to be an active, energetic, and creative person; however its ironic how the reader finds out Gatsby is the complete opposite. He is describes as a man of class, elegant, who doesn’t drink, isn’t an alcoholic, and isn’t a great partier himself, as he isn’t often present during his parties where everyone else is. This is another reason why he embodies the characteristics of West Egg, because in West Egg, those who made themselves rich, don’t, or at least until now, haven’t mentioned the way they earned their wealth. Gatsby doesn’t tell everyone immediately the way he became rich, he rarely talks about it. Also Nick, the narrator, he lives in West Egg, therefore he must have some sort of wealth, however he doesn’t mention it or clarifies exactly where he got it from. Instead East Egg seems to work in a different way, since it’s the place of â€Å"old money† and established aristocracy, that means people are established rich and have most likely inherited wealth from their family, such as Tom. Therefore, Fitzgerald portrays Gatsby in such ways that fulfill the characteristics of a man living in West Egg.

The Five C’s Worksheet

The Five C’s Worksheet Directions: Identify the following factor descriptions to their corresponding C of credit. The five C’s are listed below: †¢Capacity means the ability or intent to repay your debts, basing it upon your household cash flow; lenders typically follow different methods to consider my expenses relative to the person’s income. †¢Capital is the household’s net worth, by combining all assets, and making sure that the debts is smaller than the total assets, the lender can verify that the loan will be paid by liquidating all assets should you need to pay your debts, sort of risking all you got in order to get their trust. Collateral can be either your car, home, boat, anything that you can pledge to make the loan safer, and the lender feel that you are not being a high-risk loan, because you can lose your own assets.†¢Character is the history behind your credit, employment, and education, as well as how well you handle your obli gations, such as accrued debts in the past that were taken care of. They measure your trustworthiness. Conditions are the considerations a lender makes after viewing the broad spectrum of your situation, being that every loan is unique in its situations, the lender can take into considerations your economic status, the employment opportunities in your area, or anything that will make you either less of a risk or more. ConditionWhich C? Your household cash flow helps to determine this C:Capacity Under these __________, you may still be approved with a cosignerConditions This demonstrates how much your assets are worth. CapitalUsing your car or house as a promise to payCollateral This makes you a better credit risk to the lender – this could be any of the C’s. For example, assets that are offered as security against default. Collateral and Capital Lenders will evaluate your debt-payment ratio. Capacity The lender is taking your unique situation under consideration. Condi tions Previous credit history This shows how long you have worked for your employer and if you have obtained an education. Character Having more at stake may make you less likely to default on a loan. Capital

Pleurotus spp

The fungi are a group of eukaryotic organisms. Due to their microscopic cellular dimensions, they are of great interest to microbiologists. Multicellular fungi is familiar to each and every one of us. The velvety blue and green growth on rotting oranges and lemons as well as on stale cheeses, the whitish grey furry outgrowth on bread and Jam, and the mushrooms in the field. These are the bodies of a variety of fungi. Fungi are heterotrophic organisms†They need organic compounds for nutrition.The classification of fungi, unlike that of bacteria, is based primarily on the hracterstics of the sexual spores and fruiting bodies, present during the sexual stages of their life cycle. However, the sexual spores and fruiting bodies are produced only under certain environmental conditions, if they are known to produce them at all. Pleurotus is a genus of gilled mushrooms which includes one of the most widely eaten mushrooms. Species of pleurotus may be called oyesters, abalone or tree mu shrooms and are some of the most commonly cultivated edible mushrooms in the world.They have been very much useful in mycoremediation of pollutants such as petroleum and polycyclic aromatic ydrocarbons. The name pleurotus has been derived from the greek word pleure (side) + otos (ear) which means â€Å"Side Ear†. The following are the details of Pleurotus Genus scientific classification: l. The kingdom of pleurotus is Fungi, II. Phylum is basidiomycota, Ill. class is Agaricomycetes ‘V. Order is agaricales V. Family is pleurotaceae The basic structure of oyster mushroom includes a capwhich may be laterally attached (with no stem).If there is a stem, it is normally eccentric and the gills are extended downward along it. The term pleurotoid is used for mushrooms having this eneral shape. There are certain cylindrical spores which are smooth and elongated. Where hyphae meet, they are Joined by clamp connections. Pleurotus is not considered to be a bracket fungus and most of the species are monomitic (with a soft consistency). Pleurotus Ostreatus Specifications Scientific name: Pleurotus ostreatus Oacq. ) P. Kumm. Derivation of name: Ostre- means â€Å"oyster† and atus means â€Å"resembling. † Synonyms: Agaricus ostreatus Jacq.Common name(s): Oyster mushroom. Phylum: Basidiomycota Order: Agaricales Family: Pleurotaceae Occurrence on wood substrate: Saprobic or parasitic; olitary to more typically in overlapping clusters on living or dead deciduous trees, on rotting logs and stumps, sometimes on conifers; April all the way through November, year-round during mild periods. Dimensions: Caps 5-20 or more cm wide; stipes 0. 5-4 cm long and 0. 5- 3. 5 cm thick. Stripes may be absent. Cap: Moist or dry; smooth; variable in color: whitish to cream, greyish to brown, some with lilac tones; oyster shell- shaped to fan-shaped or semicircular.Gills: Decurrent or glowing from point of attachment; broad; whitish, yellowish in age. Spore print: White t o pale lilac-gray. Stipe: Sometimes absent or rudimentary. If present, lateral to eccentric or even central if fruitbodies are on top of a log or stump; whitish; hairy at base. Veil: Absent. Edibility: Edible, rated as choice. The oyster and abalone mushrooms belong to the genus pleurotus. They have a high saprophyte colonizing ability and can grow on virtually any agricultural waste. They rank among the top six mushrooms produced in the world.It should be noted that the availability of a good strain of mushrooms, suitable substrate for cultivation and control of saprophytic and parasitic microorganisms are the three most important spects for mushroom cultivation. The world production for this genus was 169,000 tons in 1986. The consumption and production of edible mushrooms in developing countries have occurred for many years. There has been a high upsurge of interest in cultivation of this mushroom in the last decade. Because of their spicy flavour and their medical effects in dro pping plasma cholesterol, mushrooms are widely consumed in Europe, the U.S. A and Japan. Many of the fleshy sporocarp species of the many acomycetes and basidiomycetes can safely be eaten while only a few poisonous species of the fleshy fungi can be found . However more than one thousand mushrooms are known, about one hundred mushrooms are edible and only a few are considered of a commercial value. Pleurotus ostreatus is relatively easy to grow. A few trials to produce the mycelium of oyster mushrooms in Egypt using some agro industrial wastes were only recently carried out. The goal of this work was to study the cultivation of oyster mushroom (Pleurotus spp. emphasizing the effect of different media and organic substrates on production. Mushrooms of Pleurotus spp. are commonly known as oyster mushrooms which occupy the second osition among cultivated edible mushrooms worldwide due to their nutritional values. They are widely cultivated all over the world. Its production is remarkab ly affected by the environmental conditions like temperature and relative humidity. In this study, we investigated the production of four species of oyster mushroom: 1 . ) Pleurotus ostreatus 2. ) P. florida 3. ) P. aJor-caJu and 4. ) p. High king Cultivated in every season( January to December) in Bangladesh. The temperature (in C) and relative humidity (%RH) ot culture house in each month, and parameters ot ushroom production were recorded. In all of the selective study of this species, the minimum days required for primordial initiation, and the utmost number of fruiting bodies, biological yield and biological efficiency were found during December to February (14-27 oc, 70-80% RH). The production was found minimum during the cultivated time August to October.We suggested cultivation of selected Pleurotus spp. in winter (temperature zone 14-27 oc with relative humidity for better production and biological efficiency. The environmental factor is very important for the production of oyster mushrooms. Various mushrooms are known to be very sensitive to the climatic conditions. The major environmental factors like temperature, humidity, fresh air and compact materials affect in mushroom production. Pleurotus spp. grows in wide range of temperature (15-30 oc) which also varies from species to species.Oyster mushrooms Pleurotus spp. draw their nutritional requirement from a host substrate or from the agricultural wastes rich in lignin, cellulose and hemicelluloses used for their cultivation. Due to varying nutrients in the substrates, different mushroom yields have been recorded by various workers. Oyster mushrooms are grown from mycelium (threadlike filaments that become interwoven) propagated on a base of steam-sterilized cereal grain (usually rye or millet). This cereal grain/mycelium mixture is called spawn and is used to seed mush-room substrate.Most spawn is made with mycelium from a stored culture, rather than mycelium whose parent was a spore. This is beca use spores are likely to yield a new strain and performance would be unpredictable. Spawn-making is a rather complex task and not feasible for the ordinary mushroom grower. Spawn of various oyster mushroom species may be urchased from com-mercial spawn makers who usually provide instructions for its use. Spawn frequently is shipped from the manufacturer to growers in the same aseptic containers used for spawn production.Inoculum for spawn production is frequently produced in polyethylene bags containing a micro porous breather strip for gas exchange. Most commercial spawn production companies produce spawn only from inoculums that has met strict quality control standards. These standards include verification of inoculums production performance before it is used to produce spawn and assurance of the spawn's biological purity and vigour So ariable in size, shape and colour are the many kinds of oyster mushroom that confident recognition of some species is tricky without resorting to m icroscopic analysis.The process is not helped by the fruiting habit of many Pleurotusspecies that seem to delight in emerging beyond reach, sometimes high up in the crowns of trees. For the most part the various oyster mushrooms are saprophytic on deciduous trees, and only very rarely are they found on conifers. Distribution Pleurotus ostreatus, the Oyster Mushroom, occurs throughout Britain and Ireland as well as in most parts of mainland Europe. It is also widely distributed throughout much of Asia, including Japan, and is present in parts of North America.Several similar species within the Pleurotus genus are often confused, and so distribution data for individual species in this complex group are inevitably subject to some uncertainty. Taxonomic history The Oyster Mushroom was first described scientifically in 1775 by Dutch naturalist Nikolaus Joseph Freinerr von Jacquin 7) and named Agaricus ostreatus. (In the early days of fungus taxonomy most of the gilled mushrooms were inco rporated in the genus Agaricus. ) In 1871 German mycologist Paul Kummer transferred theOyster Mushroom to the genus Pleurotus (a new genus that Kummer himself had defined in 1971), giving it its currently accepted scientific name. Synonyms of Pleurotus ostreatus includeAgaricus ostreatus Jacq. , Crepidopus ostreatusoacq. ) Gray, and Pleurotus columbinus Quel. The blue-grey-capped form of this mushroom is referred to by some authorities as Pleurotus ostreatus var. columbinus (Quel) Quel. Etymology The generic name Pleurotus is Latin for ‘side ear' and refers to the lateral attachment of the stem;ostreatus is a reference to oysters, and in shape the fruitbodies often do esemble oyster shells.The specimens shown on this page show Just how changeable Oyster Mushrooms can be – not only in colour and form but also in their growing habitat. From the top: on a dead Beech trunk; next on a standing live (but surely dying) Cabbage Palm; and at last on a dead branch broken fallen f rom an old Ash tree. Importance of nitrogen sources for the growth of pleurotus spp. :- i) Nitrogen is an essential element for cellular functions, for growth and various metabolic activities, particularly protein and enzyme synthesis. i') The nitrogen content of mycelium ranges between 3-6%. i) Cereal straw used for cultivation of oyster mushroom is a poor source of nitrogen (0. 5 to 0. 8%) and at the time of fructification when most of the nitrogen is utilized for mycelia growth, the depleted nitrogen in the substrate becomes inadequate and limits mushroom yield. ‘v) In the present studies seven dissimilar nitrogen sources : wheat bran, rice bran, soya bean floor, de-oiled soya bean meal, mustard cake, cotton seed cake and cotton seed meal were evaluated for their effect on mushroom yield. v) Cotton seed cake and de-oiled soya bean meal gave significantly higher yield than unsupplemented bags.Review of literature : The oyster mushroom Pleurotus spp is a saprophytic fungus co mmercially cultivated throughout the world because of its tasty basidiocarp and simple cultivation technology. It is also one of the choicest white rot fungi for research scientists to investigate. Pleurotus spp's lignocellulolytic enzymes for bioremediation (Arisoy and Kalan Kayan 1997, Walter et. al. 1997), its flavour compounds, (Mau et. al. 1998), its synthesis of diterpene and polysaccharide (Gutirrez et. al. 1996) and its natural pigment extraction (Shirata and Kato 1998) make it a promising subject for study.Oyster mushrooms are mainly cultivated on residues from agricultural crops such as wheat, paddy, cotton, sugar cane or soybean (Sohi and Upadhyay 1989, Savalgi and Savalgi 1994). Pleurotus spp also have the potential to mineralize and grow on industrial wastes such as tea (Upadhyay et. al. 1996), apple pomace (Upadhyay and Sohi 1988) or non-conventional substrates containing lignin, cellulose or hemicellulose such as dried Populus leaves. (Upadhyay and Verma 2000). These residues are low (0. 5 to 0. 8%) in nitrogen content. Several workers have reported varying fresh oyster mushroom yields using crop residues (Sohi and Upadhyay 1987,Madan et. al. 1987). The variations may be due to the nutrient status of the substrate used for cultivation. The production of oyster mushrooms after the first flush is drastically reduced and there is a tlusn break ot 10 to 20 days depending upon the species of oyster mushroom. The yield turn down could be due to either depletion of nutrients or accumulation of toxic substances unfavourable to fruiting. In Agaricus bisporus, increased yields have been reported by supplementing with various proteins, carbohydrate or oil rich supplements like soybean meal, cotton seed meal, alfalfa meal or corn gluten meal.Sinder and Schisler 1962, Gerrits 1983). In the present studies seven different organic nitrogenous materials were evaluated to find out their effect on yield. The best substrates were further evaluated for their optima l dose with maximum yield. Materials and Methods Prewetted chopped wheat straw (2-3cm) was mixed with calcium sulphate (4% w/w) and carbendazim 50% w. p. (1 5g/quintal) and a rectangular pile prepared. It was given two turnings on alternate days for four days so that the temperature did not exceed more than 600C during fermentation.After four days, the partially fermented traw was pasteurized in a tunnel at 700C for 6h and subsequently conditioned at 450C for 36h. Supplements (wheat bran, rice bran, cotton seed meal, cotton seed cake, soybean meal, de-oiled soybean cake and mustard cake) were separately treated in a answer of carbendazim (100ppm) for 16h. The rate of adding up of all the supplements was 5% (dry wt. ) except wheat and rice bran (10%). Treated supplements were thoroughly mixed at the time of spawning with pasteurized straw. Twenty-day-old spawn of P. ostratuas var florida was added at a 3% wet wt.Five kg spawned substrate was filled into 45x30cm polyethelene bags with 10 holes (5mm ia. ). Each supplement had six replications. Spawned bags were incubated in a dark cropping room (temp. 13-18'C). Colonized bags were opened after 25 days. A relative humidity of 70-75% was maintained by spraying water twice a day; 6-8h light was provided with fluorescent tubes; and carbon dioxide concentration was maintained at 700-780 ppm in the cropping room. Mushrooms were harvested daily before spraying and data were recorded. Biological efficiency (BE) was planned on the basis of fresh mushrooms from 100 kg dry substrate weight.In the second experiment, cotton seed cake and de-oiled soybean cake were further evaluated r their effective optimum dose. The supplements were treated as before, at a rate of 1, 2. 5, 5, 7. 5 and 10% substrate dry weight. Table 1. Effect of organic supplements to wheat straw on fresh mushroom yield of Pleurotus ostreatus var florida in 60 days. S. No. Substrate + Supplements Average Yield (kg) per kg substrate Biological efficiency (BE) (%) Percent increase (+) or decrease (-) from control Wheat straw + wheat bran (10%) 0. 860 86. 0 +20. 6 Wheat straw + rice bran (10%) 0. 838 83. 8 +17. 5 3.Wheat straw + cotton seed cake (5%) 0. 946 94. 6 -12. 2 4. Wheat straw + cotton seed meal (5%) 0. 46 64. 6 5. Wheat straw + soybean meal (5%) 0. 732 73. 2 2. 6 6. Wheat straw + de-oiled soybean cake (5%) 0. 928 92. 8 +30. 1 7. Wheat straw + mustard cake (5%) 0. 532 53. 2 -25. 3 8. Wheat straw (control) 0. 713 71 . 3 CD at 0. 21 1 Table 2. Effect of different doses of de-oiled soybean cake on fresh mushroom yield and dry matter of Pleurotus ostreatus var florida. S. NO. Rate of supplementation (Dry wt. ) % increase over control % dry matter content in 1st and 2nd tlusnes Wheat straw 1% soybean 92. +21 9. 85 10. 04 2. 2. 5% soybean 84. 8 +11. 57 9. 45 10. 0 5% soybean 84. 5 +11. 18 10. 29 10. 25 7. % soybean 87. 8 +1 5. 52 8. 8 9. 75 10. 0% soybean 83. 2 +8. 15 9. 3 10. 55 76. 0 6. 9 The dry matter content of mushrooms harvested from both the supplements at different doses are shown in Table 2 and Table 3. Soybean supplementation generally yielded heavier mushrooms in the first flush than cotton seed cake supplementation. Maximum dry matter content was recorded from bags supplemented with 5% de-oiled soybean cake and further increase in supplementation did not yield heavier mushrooms.In cotton seed cake, the heaviest mushroom truit bodies were observed with 0% dose in the first tlusn, while in the econd flush, the lowest rate of application gave the heaviest mushrooms. The dry matter content in the second flush was generally more than the first flush for both the supplements. Interestingly the spore print colour of the mushrooms from 10% soybean was a creamy yellow. The nutritional analysis of mushrooms attain from different supplements is under investigation. The addition of cotton seed cake gave the maximum yield increase (+47. 7%) while soybean cake gave heavier mushroom fruit bodies than cotton seed cak e.The use of supplementation increased the substrate temperature (Figurel and Figure 2) from the fourth day onwards to the ixteenth day. Bags with de-oiled soybean cakes showed a rise in temperature from 3 to 90C over room temperature and 3 to 50C over unsupplemented bag temperature. Cotton seed cake addition showed less temperature rise compared with similar doses of soybean cake. The utmost rise in temperature was between the fourth day and the ninth day. Table-3: Effect of different doses of cotton seed cake on fresh mushroom yield and dry matter of Pleurotus ostreatus var florida.Substrate used Biological Efficiency (%) % Dry matter content in 1st and 2nd flush Wheat straw + cotton seed cake 1% 90. 4 +18. 94 7. 3 10. 5 Wheat straw + cotton seed cake 2. 5% 100. 3 +31 . 97 8. 1 9. 82 Wheat straw + cotton seed cake 5. 0% 112. 0 +47. 36 7. 8 9. 49 Wheat straw + cotton seed cake 7. 5% 105. 3 8. 0 Wheat straw + cotton seed cake 10% 112. 3 +47. 7 9. 01 9. 0 9. 28 CDat5% DISCUSSION Alth ough commercial cultivation of oyster mushroom Pleurotus spp started very late compared to Agericus bisporus (1650 A. D. ), Lentinula edodes (1100 A. D. and Auricularia spp (600 A. D. ), it occupies the third place in the world among the cultivated mushrooms. Successful cultivation of oyster mushroom using cereal straw was reported in 1962 by Bano and Srivastava from India. Still, it is not widely cultivated due to inconsistent yields. The fresh mushroom yield or biological efficiency of a species is directly related to strain, substrate nutrition and growth conditions. Sustainable oyster mushroom production can be achieved by employing cultural practices which optimize and integrate nutrient management.Agricultural residues used for oyster mushroom farming provide most of the nutrients and vitamins for growth. Carbon is readily available from cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin from straw, but nitrogen occurs mostly in a bound form and is not available until it is enzymatically rel eased. Various workers have also reported that Pleurotus spp have the capability to fix atmospheric nitrogen (Rangaswamy et. al. 1975, Jandaik and Rangad 1977) but this has not been proved conclusively. In the cultivation of A. isporus the addition of protein rich supplements is a common practice, which indicates that either the compost is deficient in nitrogen or the bacterial proteins present in the compost are inadequate.Rinker (1989) found 37 and 42. 6% more total yield in P. ostreatus from supplementation with barley straw with brewer's grain and 17, 27, 65 and 118% more yield by addition of alfalfa hay at 5, 10, 20 and 40% (dry wt. basis). He also found that supplementation prior to pasteurization increased the total yield, but mushroom size was negatively affected with increased supplementation. In our studies we have not found any significant effect on mushroom size. Influence of supplementation is also species and strain-specific.Somycel 3200 reacted poorly to alfalfa meal and negatively to chicken manure, and Somycel 3001 reacted positively to rice bran and alfalfa meal at the time of filling (Visscher 1989). Upadhyay and Vijay (1989) also observed cotton seed meal as better supplement for P. fossulatus and rice bran for P. ostreatus. Supplementation is absolutely necessary for getting fructification is some strains of P. eryngii (Royse 1999, Upadhyay and Vijay 1991). With supplementation came a rise in substrate temperature, possibly due to faster metabolic activities riggered by extra nitrogen.Royse and Schisler (1986) also observed overheating (from 300C to 470C) in bags where Spawnmate was applied without benomyl treatment, and proposed that it could be due to the growth of competitor moulds. GurJar and Doshi (1995) did not find any effect on yield of P. cornucopiae with 5 and 7. 5% addition of soybean meal in wheat straw and assumed this could be due to a rise in temperature. We identified increases in the temperature of beds from 5 to 90C over room temperature. Therefore, supplements should be cautiously used, because excessive bed temperature (more than 350C) may kill the mycelium.OverstiJns (1995) observed an increase of 19% in mushrooms with the addition of only 0. 5% corn steep liquor and recorded a rise in temperature from 0. 3, 1. 4 and 2. 30C with the addition of only 0. 5, 1 and 2% corn steep liquor. Higher supplement doses gave even higher temperatures, which were harmful and attracted growth of Coprinus sp (Guna segaran and Graham 1987). In A. bisporus, the addition of formaldehyde-pretreated 1 and 2% cotton seed meal and soybean meal at the time of casing produced 20 and 30% higher yields respectively, but higher doses of supplement attracted a lot of contamination (Gupta and Vijay 1992).Supplementation has also been found to facilitate higher mushroom yield in other mushrooms such as Agrocybe aegerita and L. edodes (Zadrazil 1994, Jong 1989). Higher supplementation (3 to 4% w/w) of NPK in rice husk, melon husk and coconut fruit fibers did not give either mycelium growth or basidiocarp from the tubers of P. tuberregium (Isikhuemhen and Okhuoya 1998). Supplementation with de-oiled soybean and cotton seed cake not only gave higher biological efficiency but the fruit bodies were significantly heavier than in unsupplemented bags.